China

Overall rating
Highly insufficient

Policies and action
against fair share

Insufficient
< 3°C World

NDC target
against modelled domestic pathways

Highly insufficient
< 4°C World

NDC target
against fair share

Insufficient
< 3°C World
Climate finance
Not assessed
Net zero target

year

2060

Comprehensiveness rated as

Poor
Land use & forestry
Not assessed

References

Aitken, G., Langenbrunner, B. and Zimmermann, S. (2022) Europe Gas Tracker Report 2022. Available at: https://globalenergymonitor.org/report/europe-gas-tracker-2022/ (Accessed: 30 May 2022)

Andrew Hayley (2024) ‘Explainer: China’s dominance in wind turbine manufacturing’, 10 April. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/chinas-dominance-wind-turbine-manufacturing-2024-04-10 (Accessed: 1 June 2025)

Andrews, M. (2025) ‘Electrified cars make up nearly 9% of China’s total car fleet’, Car News China, 17 January. Available at: https://carnewschina.com/2025/01/17/electrified-cars-make-up-nearly-9-of-chinas-total-car-fleet (Accessed: 13 June 2025)

Bloomberg News (2021) ‘Peak aluminium looms for China as Xi pushes new green mission’, 7 March. Available at: https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/energy-commodities/peak-aluminium-looms-for-china-as-xi-pushes-new-green-mission (Accessed: 6 April 2021)

Bloomberg News (2023) ‘China’s Taking Control of LNG as Global Demand Booms’, 19 February. Available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-19/china-s-moving-to-take-control-of-liquefied-natural-gas-as-global-demand-booms (Accessed: 27 April 2023)

Bloomberg News (2024a) ‘China Accelerates Grid Projects to Keep Up With Renewables Boom’, Bloomberg News, 6 June. Available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-06-05/china-accelerates-grid-projects-to-keep-up-with-renewables-boom (Accessed: 10 June 2025)

Bloomberg News (2024b) ‘China Eases Rules That Could Slow World-Beating Solar Boom’, Bloomber News, 30 May. Available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-05-30/china-eases-rules-that-could-slow-world-beating-solar-boom (Accessed: 10 June 2025)

Bloomberg News (2025) ‘China Set to Reach Peak Emissions Before 2030, Ex-Official Says’, Bloomberg News, 29 May. Available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2025-05-29/china-set-to-reach-peak-emissions-before-2030-ex-official-says (Accessed: 10 June 2025)

BloombergNEF (2025) ‘Energy Transition Investment Trends 2025’. Available at: https://about.bnef.com/blog/global-investment-in-the-energy-transition-exceeded-2-trillion-for-the-first-time-in-2024-according-to-bloombergnef-report/ (Accessed: 7 May 2025)

CABEE (2025) ‘2024 China Urban and Rural Building and Construction Sector Carbon Emission Research Report’. Beijing: China Association of Building Energy Efficiency. Available at: https://cmsfiles.zhongkefu.com.cn/cmsossjianzhujieneng/upload/file/20250120/1737310863233732.pdf (Accessed: 30 May 2025)

Caixin (2022) China Overtakes Japan as Top LNG Importer, Caixin Global. Available at: https://www.caixinglobal.com/2022-01-07/china-overtakes-japan-as-top-lng-importer-101826804.html (Accessed: 30 March 2021)

CEC (2024) CEC released 2023-2024 National Electricity Supply and Demand Situation Analysis and Forecast Report. Available at: https://cn.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202401/31/WS65b9dcb0a31026469ab16f10.html

CET (2025) ‘China Energy Transformation Outlook 2024’. China Energy Transformation Programme. Available at: https://www.cet.energy/2025/02/12/china-energy-transformation-outlook-2024 (Accessed: 12 March 2025)

CGTN (2023) ‘China aims to increase EV share in public sector to 80% in pilot cities’, CGTN, 5 February. Available at: https://news.cgtn.com/news/2023-02-04/China-aims-to-raise-EV-share-in-public-sector-to-80-in-pilot-cities--1h9BV3tIXOE/index.html (Accessed: 19 April 2023)

CGTN (2024) ‘Chinese scientists call for consumption-based carbon accounting’, CGTN, 29 May. Available at: https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-05-29/Chinese-scientists-call-for-consumption-based-carbon-accounting-1u07nr7gEU0/p.html (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

CGTN (2025) ‘China’s forest coverage surpasses 25%, leading global green expansion’, CGTN, 12 March. Available at: https://news.cgtn.com/news/2025-03-12/China-s-forest-coverage-surpasses-25-leading-global-green-expansion-1BG1WF1rEY0/p.html

Chen, A. (2025) ‘China’s crude oil imports fall in 2024, first time in two decades outside of COVID’, Reuters, 13 January. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/chinas-crude-oil-imports-fall-2024-first-time-two-decades-outside-covid-2025-01-13/

China Dialogue (2022) Carbon peaking goal for steel sector toned down, China Dialogue. Available at: https://chinadialogue.net/en/digest/carbon-peaking-goal-for-steel-sector-toned-down/ (Accessed: 24 April 2023)

Chow, E. and Singh, S. (2021) China to use more natural gas in energy mix to 2035 - CNPC, Reuters. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/china-use-more-natural-gas-energy-mix-2035-cnpc-2021-06-24/ (Accessed: 19 March 2022)

Client Earth (2020) China introduces new law to safeguard forests and improve governance, Client Earth. Available at: https://www.clientearth.org/china-introduces-new-law-to-safeguard-forests-and-improve-governance/ (Accessed: 4 September 2020)

Climate Action Tracker (2016) The ten most important short-term steps to limit warming to 1.5°C. Climate Action Tracker. Available at: https://climateactiontracker.org/publications/the-ten-most-important-short-term-steps-to-limit-warming-to-15c/

Climate Action Tracker (2020a) Paris Agreement Compatible Sectoral Benchmarks: Elaborating the decarbonisation roadmap. Climate Action Tracker (Climate Analytics, NewClimate Institute). Available at: https://climateanalytics.org/media/cat_2020-07-10_parisagreementbenchmarks_fullreport.pdf (Accessed: 25 August 2021)

Climate Action Tracker (2020b) Paris Agreement Compatible Sectoral Benchmarks. Available at: https://climateactiontracker.org/publications/paris-agreement-benchmarks/ (Accessed: 14 June 2021)

Climate Action Tracker (2021) Exploring new electric vehicle roadmaps for China in a post-COVID-19 era. Climate Action Tracker. Available at: https://climateactiontracker.org/documents/976/CAT_2021-10-04_China_ElectricVehicleRoadmaps.pdf

Climate Action Tracker (2023) CAT briefing: Pulling the plug on fossils in power. Available at: https://climateactiontracker.org/publications/pulling-the-plug-on-fossils-in-power (Accessed: 12 July 2024)

Climate Action Tracker (2024) Decarbonising steel: national circumstances and priority actions. Available at: https://climateactiontracker.org/publications/decarbonising-steel/

Clyde Russell (2025) ‘China’s steel sector is softening, but with resilience’, Reuters, 21 January. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/chinas-steel-sector-is-softening-with-resilience-russell-2025-01-21

CNCA (2025) 2024 China Coal Industry Development Annual Report. Available at: https://www.cctd.com.cn/show-67-249116-1.html (Accessed: 15 May 2025)

Corbeau, A.-S. and Yan, S. (2022) Implications of China’s Unprecedented LNG-Contracting Activity, Center on Global Energy Policy. Available at: https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/publications/implications-of-chinas-unprecedented-lng-contracting-activity/ (Accessed: 27 April 2023)

CREA (2024a) ‘Analysis: China’s coal-to-chemicals growth risks climate goals’. Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. Available at: https://energyandcleanair.org/analysis-chinas-coal-to-chemicals-growth-risks-climate-goals/ (Accessed: 13 June 2025)

CREA (2024b) ‘China’s Climate Transition: Outlook 2024’. Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. Available at: https://energyandcleanair.org/publication/chinas-climate-transition-outlook-2024/ (Accessed: 10 March 2025)

CREA (2024c) Turning point: China permitted no new coal-based steel projects in H1 2024 as policies drive decarbonisation. Available at: https://energyandcleanair.org/publication/turning-point-china-permitted-no-new-coal-based-steel-projects-in-h1-2024-as-policies-drive-decarbonisation/ (Accessed: 7 March 2025)

CREA and GEM (2024) China risks missing multiple climate commitments as coal power approvals continue. Available at: https://energyandcleanair.org/publication/china-risks-missing-multiple-climate-commitments-as-coal-power-approvals-continue/ (Accessed: 7 March 2025)

DG for Climate Action (2021) Joint Press Communiqué following the Second EU-China High Level Environment and Climate Dialogue. Available at: https://climate.ec.europa.eu/news-your-voice/news/joint-press-communique-following-second-eu-china-high-level-environment-and-climate-dialogue-2021-10-10_en (Accessed: 14 April 2023)

EEO (2021) Industry input being sought: plan to achieve carbon peak by 2025 (Chinese), EEO. Available at: http://www.eeo.com.cn/2021/0406/483962.shtml (Accessed: 6 April 2021)

EIA (2024) ‘China’s natural gas consumption, production, and imports all increased in 2023’. U.S. Energy Information Administration. Available at: https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=62804 (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

EIA (2025) ‘China’s crude oil imports decreased from a record as refinery activity slowed’, U.S. Energy Information Administration, 11 February. Available at: https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=64544#

Ember (2025) ‘China: Power sector overview’. Available at: https://ember-energy.org/countries-and-regions/china/ (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

FMPRC (2020) Statement by H.E. Xi Jinping President of the People’s Republic of China At the General Debate of the 75th Session of The United Nations General Assembly, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1817098.shtml (Accessed: 23 September 2020)

GEM, CREA, E3G, et al. (2025) Boom and Bust Coal 2025. Available at: https://globalenergymonitor.org/report/boom-and-bust-coal-2025/ (Accessed: 14 April 2025)

Friedlingstein, P., O’Sullivan, M., Jones, M.W., et al. (2025) ‘Global Carbon Budget 2024’, Earth System Science Data, 17(3), pp. 965–1039. doi:10.5194/ESSD-17-965-2025 (Accessed: 23 October 2025)

Global Witness (2019) Lessons from China’s Global Forest Footprint, Global Witness. Available at: https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/forests/lessons-from-chinas-global-forest-footprint/ (Accessed: 4 September 2020)

Government of China (2021) China’s Mid-Century Long-Term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategy. Beijing, China. Available at: https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/China’s Mid-Century Long-Term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategy.pdf

Government of China (2022) China’s Achievements, New Goals and New Measures for Nationally Determined Contributions. Available at: https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-06/China’s Achievements%2C New Goals and New Measures for Nationally Determined Contributions.pdf

Government of China (2023) China. Biennial Update Report (BUR). BUR 3. Available at: https://unfccc.int/documents/636696

Gütschow, J., Busch, D. and Pflüger, M. (2025) ‘The PRIMAP-hist national historical emissions time series (1750-2023) v2.6.1’. Available at: https://primap.org/primap-hist/ (Accessed: 21 October 2025)

Harvey, F. (2025) ‘China’s plans to cut emissions too weak to stave off global catastrophe, say experts | Climate crisis | The Guardian’, The Guardian, 24 September. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/sep/24/chinas-plans-to-cut-emission-too-weak-to-stave-off-global-catastrophe-say-experts (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

He, J., Li, Z., Zhang, X., et al. (2021) China’s Long-term Low-Carbon Development Strategies and Pathway. Beijing, China: Springer Singapore. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2524-4

Healy, C. (2023) ‘China’s petrochemical surge is driving global oil demand growth’. International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/commentaries/china-s-petrochemical-surge-is-driving-global-oil-demand-growth (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

Healy, C., McKimm, R. and Walinga, I. (2025) ‘Oil demand for fuels in China has reached a plateau’. International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/commentaries/oil-demand-for-fuels-in-china-has-reached-a-plateau (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

Hou, L. (2024) ‘China praised for climate financial aid’, China Daily, 18 November. Available at: https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202411/18/WS673a96d4a310f1265a1cdf94.html

Howe, C. (2023) ‘China plans to launch inter-provincial power trading by year-end’, Reuters, 2 November. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/china-power-spot-idAFL4N3C30M3

ICAP (2025) ‘China officially expands national ETS to cement, steel and aluminum sectors’. International Carbon Action Partnership. Available at: https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/news/china-officially-expands-national-ets-cement-steel-and-aluminum-sectors (Accessed: 7 May 2025)

IEA (2021a) An Energy Sector Roadmap to Carbon Neutrality in China. International Energy Agency (IEA). Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/an-energy-sector-roadmap-to-carbon-neutrality-in-china

IEA (2021b) The Role of China’s ETS in Power Sector Decarbonisation. International Energy Agency (IEA). Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-chinas-ets-in-power-sector-decarbonisation

IEA (2022a) ‘Solar PV Global Supply Chains’. International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/solar-pv-global-supply-chains (Accessed: 13 June 2025)

IEA (2022b) World Energy Outlook 2022. Available at: https://www.iea.org/topics/world-energy-outlook (Accessed: 4 January 2023)

IEA (2023a) Energy Statistics Data Browser. Available at: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/energy-statistics-data-browser?country=SGP&fuel=CO2 emissions&indicator=TotCO2 (Accessed: 20 March 2024)

IEA (2023b) Net Zero Roadmap: A Global Pathway to Keep the 1.5 °C Goal in Reach 2023 Update. Paris, France: International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-roadmap-a-global-pathway-to-keep-the-15-0c-goal-in-reach (Accessed: 19 August 2024)

IEA (2023c) World Energy Outlook 2023. Paris, France. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2023 (Accessed: 29 May 2025)

IEA (2024a) ‘The changing landscape of global emissions’, CO2 Emissions in 2023 [Preprint]. International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/co2-emissions-in-2023/the-changing-landscape-of-global-emissions (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

IEA (2024b) ‘World Energy Outlook 2024’. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2024 (Accessed: 29 May 2025)

IEA (2025a) ‘Electricity 2025’. Paris: International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-2025 (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

IEA (2025b) ‘Global EV Outlook 2025’. International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2025/trends-in-the-electric-car-industry-3 (Accessed: 13 June 2025)

IEEFA (2022) Carbon capture: a decarbonisation pipe dream. Available at: https://ieefa.org/articles/carbon-capture-decarbonisation-pipe-dream

Interpol (2019) Global Forestry Enforcement. Available at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/5149/file/Global Forestry Enforcement Prospectus 2019-web.pdf

Jones, B. (2022) Past, present and future: The evolution of China’s incredible high-speed rail network, CNN. Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/china-high-speed-rail-cmd/index.html (Accessed: 30 March 2022)

JRC (2025) ‘Global Energy and Climate Outlook 2024’, European Commission [Preprint]. Available at: https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/projects-and-activities/global-energy-and-climate-outlook/geco-2024_en (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

Liang, V.L. (2025) ‘China’s NEVs reach 51.1% retail penetration in March’, Asia Insurance Review, 11 April. Available at: https://www.asiainsurancereview.com/News/View-NewsLetter-Article/id/91294/type/eCin/China-s-NEVs-reach-51-1-retail-penetration-in-March

Ling, J. (2024) ‘Pause on steel projects shows challenges of China’s green transition’. Dialogue Earth. Available at: Pause on steel projects shows challenges of China’s green transition (Accessed: 11 June 2025)

Liu, H. and You, X. (2021) Q&A: What does China’s new Paris Agreement pledge mean for climate change?, Carbon Brief. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-what-does-chinas-new-paris-agreement-pledge-mean-for-climate-change (Accessed: 30 March 2022)

Liu, L. (2024) ‘China issues energy law’. Dialogue Earth. Available at: https://dialogue.earth/en/digest/china-issues-energy-law/ (Accessed: 25 February 2025)

Lombardo, T., Paoli, L., Pales, A.F. and Gül, T. (2025) ‘The battery industry has entered a new phase’. International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/commentaries/the-battery-industry-has-entered-a-new-phase (Accessed: 13 June 2025)

McKenna, P. (2022) China Moves to Freeze Production of Climate Super-Pollutants But Lacks a System to Monitor Emissions, Inside Climate News. Available at: https://insideclimatenews.org/news/21012022/china-super-pollutant-emissions/ (Accessed: 30 March 2022)

MEE of China (2025a) ‘Progress Report of China’s National Carbon Market 2025’, Ministry of Ecology and Environment [Preprint]. Available at: https://www.mee.gov.cn/ywgz/ydqhbh/wsqtkz/202509/W020250927515319387445.pdf (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

MEE of China (2025b) ‘Progress Report of China’s National Carbon Market 2025’, Ministry of Ecology and Environment [Preprint]. Available at: https://www.mee.gov.cn/ywgz/ydqhbh/wsqtkz/202509/W020250927515319387445.pdf (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

MIIT of China (2021) 14th Five-Year Plan for Industrial Green Development. Available at: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2021-12/03/content_5655701.htm (Accessed: 24 April 2023)

MIIT of China (2022) Guiding Opinions on Promoting the High-quality Development of the Iron and Steel Industry, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. Available at: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2022-02/08/content_5672513.htm (Accessed: 24 April 2023)

MIIT of China, NDRC, MEE and MHURD (2022) Notice of the four departments on printing and distributing the implementation plan for the carbon peak of the building materials industry. Available at: https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/tz/art/2022/art_8f6d55dd58d64283937d7fb87e21b666.html (Accessed: 12 April 2023)

MIIT of China, NDRC and MEE (2022) Carbon Peak Implementation Plan in the Industrial Sector. Available at: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2022-08/01/content_5703910.htm (Accessed: 24 April 2023)

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China (2025) ‘Xi Jinping Delivers Remarks at the Leaders Meeting on Climate and the Just Transition’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 23 April. Available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xw/zyxw/202504/t20250425_11604454.html

MoHURD of China (2019a) Green Building Evaluation Standards. Available at: https://www.mohurd.gov.cn/gongkai/zhengce/zhengcefilelib/201905/20190530_240717.html (Accessed: 18 May 2023)

MoHURD of China (2019b) ‘Technical standard for nearly zero energy buildings (GB/T 51350-2019)’. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development People’s Republic of China. Available at: https://www.iea.org/policies/11635-technical-standard-for-nearly-zero-energy-buildings-gbt-51350-2019 (Accessed: 30 May 2025)

MoHURD of China (2022) 14th Five-Year Plan for Building Energy Conservation and Green Building Development Plan, Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development. Available at: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2022-03/12/content_5678698.htm (Accessed: 14 April 2023)

MoHURD of China and NDRC (2022) Implementation plan for carbon peaking in urban and rural construction. Available at: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2022-07/13/5700752/files/679a410848f04ea6bd2034faea9d4839.pdf (Accessed: 14 April 2023)

MoT of China (2021) 14th Five-Year Plan for Green Transportation. Available at: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2022-01/21/content_5669662.htm (Accessed: 19 April 2023)

Mukpo, A. (2020) China’s revised forest law could boost efforts to fight illegal logging, Mongabay. Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2020/03/chinas-revised-forest-law-could-boost-efforts-to-fight-illegal-logging/ (Accessed: 4 September 2020)

Myllyvirta, L. (2024a) ‘Analysis: China’s CO2 falls 1% in Q2 2024 in first quarterly drop since Covid-19’, Carbon Brief, 8 August. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-chinas-co2-falls-1-in-q2-2024-in-first-quarterly-drop-since-covid-19/

Myllyvirta, L. (2024b) ‘Analysis: Record drop in China’s CO2 emissions needed to meet 2025 target’, Carbon Brief. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-record-drop-in-chinas-co2-emissions-needed-to-meet-2025-target/

Myllyvirta, L. (2025a) ‘Analysis: Clean energy just put China’s CO2 emissions into reverse for first time’. Carbon Brief. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-clean-energy-just-put-chinas-co2-emissions-into-reverse-for-first-time/

Myllyvirta, L. (2025b) ‘Analysis: Record solar growth keeps China’s CO2 falling in first half of 2025 - Carbon Brief’, Carbon Brief, 21 August. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-record-solar-growth-keeps-chinas-co2-falling-in-first-half-of-2025/ (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

Myllyvirta, L. (2025c) ‘Analysis: Record surge of clean energy in 2024 halts China’s CO2 rise’. Carbon Brief. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-record-surge-of-clean-energy-in-2024-halts-chinas-co2-rise/ (Accessed: 5 May 2025)

Myllyvirta, L. (2025d) ‘Will China fulfil its key climate pledge?’ Dialogue Earth. Available at: https://dialogue.earth/en/climate/will-china-fulfil-its-key-climate-pledge/ (Accessed: 7 May 2025)

Myllyvirta, L., Qin, Q. and Qiu, C. (2025) ‘Analysis: Clean energy contributed a record 10% of China’s GDP in 2024’. Carbon Brief. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-clean-energy-contributed-a-record-10-of-chinas-gdp-in-2024/ (Accessed: 7 May 2025)

Nakano, J. (2022) China’s Hydrogen Industrial Strategy, Center for Strategic and International Studies. Available at: https://www.csis.org/analysis/chinas-hydrogen-industrial-strategy (Accessed: 30 March 2022)

National Bureau of Statistics (2021) China Statistical Yearbook 2021, NBS of China. Available at: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexeh.htm (Accessed: 30 March 2022)

NBS of China (2025) ‘Statistical Communiqué of The People’s Republic of China on the 2024 National Economic and Social Development’. National Bureau of Statistics of China. Available at: https://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202502/t20250228_1958822.html (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

NDRC (2021) Implementation Plan for the Retrofitting and Upgrading of coal fired power plants. Beijing. Available at: https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xxgk/zcfb/tz/202111/P020211103333054582799.pdf (Accessed: 5 March 2023)

NDRC (2022) 14th Five-Year Renewable Energy Development Plan. Beijing. Available at: https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xwdt/tzgg/202206/t20220601_1326720.html (Accessed: 12 April 2023)

NDRC (2024) ‘List of Demonstration Projects on Green and Low Carbon Advanced Technologies (Batch 1)’. National Development and Reform Commission. Available at: https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xxgk/zcfb/tz/202404/t20240416_1365681.html (Accessed: 7 May 2025)

NDRC (2025a) Implementation Measures for the Minimum Proportion Target of Renewable Energy Consumption and the Renewable Energy Electricity Consumption Responsibility Weight System (Draft for Comment), National Development and Reform Commission. Available at: https://yyglxxbsgw.ndrc.gov.cn/htmls/article/article.html?articleId=2c97d16b-93251263-0199-dd37c7dd-00c5 (Accessed: 30 October 2025)

NDRC (2025b) ‘List of Demonstration Projects on Green and Low Carbon Advanced Technologies (Batch 2)’. National Development and Reform Commission. Available at: https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xwdt/tzgg/202504/t20250428_1397462.html (Accessed: 7 May 2025)

NDRC and NEA (2022) 14th Five-Year Plan for a Modern Energy System (Chinese). Beijing, China: National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and National Energy Administration (NEA). Available at: https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xxgk/zcfb/ghwb/202203/P020220322582066837126.pdf

NDRC and NEA (2024) ‘Action Plan for the Low Carbon Transformation of Coal Power Plant (2024-2027)’, gov.cn, 24 June. Available at: https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/202407/content_6963501.htm

NEA (2022) National Energy Administration: In principle, no new coal power projects purely for power generation will be built, BJX Power

NEA (2025a) ‘Implementation Plan for Special Action on Optimization of Power System Regulation Capacity (2025-2027)’. National Energy Administration, People’s Republic of China. Available at: https://www.nea.gov.cn/20250106/741c84c8cce04799b1561d6a45126b01/c.html (Accessed: 13 May 2025)

NEA (2025b) ‘National Energy Administration Holds Press Conference to Introduce Renewable Energy Grid Integration in Q1 2025’. https://www.nea.gov.cn/20250428/4b2dff7ab84347df9a068f8e972f4775/c.html. Available at: https://www.nea.gov.cn/20250428/4b2dff7ab84347df9a068f8e972f4775/c.html (Accessed: 7 May 2025)

NEA (2025c) ‘NEA Releases National Electricity Industry Statistics for 2024’. National Energy Administration, People’s Republic of China. Available at: https://www.nea.gov.cn/20250121/097bfd7c1cd3498897639857d86d5dac/c.html (Accessed: 25 January 2025)

NFGA (2016) ‘National Forest Management Plan (2016-2050)’. Beijing: National Forestry and Grassland Administration. Available at: http://www.forestry.gov.cn/uploadfile/main/2016-7/file/2016-7-27-5b0861f937084243be5d17399f5f5f71.pdf (Accessed: 14 April 2023)

NGFA of China (2021) Outline of the ‘14th Five-Year’ Forestry and Grassland Protection and Development Plan. Beijing. Available at: http://www.forestry.gov.cn/main/5461/20210819/091113145233764.html (Accessed: 14 April 2023)

NNSA of China (2025) ‘China’s National Nuclear Power Operations (January-December 2024)’. National Nuclear Safety Admnistration of China. Available at: https://nnsa.mee.gov.cn/ywdt/hyzx/202502/t20250206_1101794.html (Accessed: 13 May 2025)

Norton, B. (2024) ‘China is “world’s sole manufacturing superpower”, with 35% of global output - Geopolitical Economy Report’, Geopolitical Economy, 31 January. Available at: https://geopoliticaleconomy.com/2024/01/31/china-world-manufacturing-superpower-production/ (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

Patel, A. (2023) ‘Q&A: What does China’s new methane plan mean for its climate goals?’, Carbon Brief, 23 November. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-what-does-chinas-new-methane-plan-mean-for-its-climate-goals/

Patel, A. (2025) ‘China’s construction of new coal-power plants “reached 10-year high” in 2024’. Carbon Brief. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/chinas-construction-of-new-coal-power-plants-reached-10-year-high-in-2024/ (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

Photovoltaic Discovery (2024) ‘94% of New Building Area in China Is Green — How to Unlock the Trillion-Yuan Market for Photovoltaic Buildings?’ Available at: https://news.solarbe.com/202406/03/378862.html (Accessed: 13 June 2025)

PR Newswire (2024) ‘Sinopec Releases Reports Offering Outlooks of China’s Energy, Hydrogen and Chemical Development’, Morningstar, 29 May. Available at: https://www.morningstar.com/news/pr-newswire/20240529cn25708/sinopec-releases-reports-offering-outlooks-of-chinas-energy-hydrogen-and-chemical-development

Qiu, Z., Feng, Z., Song, Y., et al. (2020) ‘Carbon sequestration potential of forest vegetation in China from 2003 to 2050: Predicting forest vegetation growth based on climate and the environment’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 252. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119715

Rangelova, K., Jones, D. and Fulghum, N. (2025) ‘Powering through the heat: how 2024 heatwaves reshaped electricity demand’. Ember Insights. Available at: https://ember-energy.org/latest-insights/powering-through-the-heat-how-2024-heatwaves-reshaped-electricity-demand/ (Accessed: 11 June 2025)

Reuters (2023) ‘China expects to OK 6-8 nuclear power units per year in green energy drive’, Reuters.com, 27 September. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-expects-ok-6-8-nuclear-power-units-per-year-green-energy-drive-2023-09-27/

Reuters (2024a) ‘China completes 3,000-km green belt around its biggest desert, state media says’, Reuters, 29 November. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-completes-3000-km-green-belt-around-its-biggest-desert-state-media-says-2024-11-29

Reuters (2024b) ‘China state planner updates rules on electricity market operations’, TradingView, 14 May. Available at: https://www.tradingview.com/news/reuters.com,2024:newsml_L1N3HH0G8:0-china-state-planner-updates-rules-on-electricity-market-operations/

Reuters (2025) ‘EU, China will look into setting minimum prices on electric vehicles, EU says’, Reuters, 10 April. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/eu-china-start-talks-lifting-eu-tariffs-chinese-electric-vehicles-handelsblatt-2025-04-10/

Rozansky, R. and Shearer, C. (2021) Asia’s Coal Bust Risks Being Followed by a Gas Boom. Global Energy Monitor. Available at: https://globalenergymonitor.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Asia-CoalBustGasBoom-Briefing_final.pdf

Rudd, K. (2021) China’s commitment on HFCs sends key signal, China Dialogue. Available at: https://chinadialogue.net/en/climate/chinas-commitment-hfcs-sends-key-signal/ (Accessed: 30 March 2021)

SASAC (2021) Notice on Printing and Distributing the ‘Guiding Opinions on Promoting the High-quality Development of Central Enterprises and Doing a Good Job in Carbon Neutralization’ (Chinese), State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission of the State Council of China. Available at: http://www.sasac.gov.cn/n2588035/c22499825/content.html (Accessed: 19 March 2022)

SCIO of China (2020) China meets afforestation targets in 13th Five-Year Plan, State Council Information Office (China). Available at: http://english.scio.gov.cn/pressroom/2020-12/17/content_77023372.htm (Accessed: 14 April 2023)

Song, W., Viisainen, V. and Patel, A. (2024) ‘Q&A: The global “trade war” over China’s booming EV industry’, Carbon Brief, 28 August. Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-the-global-trade-war-over-chinas-booming-ev-industry/

Stanway, D. (2021) China to step up tree planting campaign to help reach net zero, Reuters. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-step-up-tree-planting-campaign-help-reach-net-zero-2021-08-20/ (Accessed: 30 March 2022)

State Council of China (2022) The State Council issued the 14th Five-Year Modern Comprehensive Transportation System Development Plan, State Council. Available at: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2022-01/18/content_5669049.htm (Accessed: 19 April 2023)

State Council of China (2023a) ‘Govt releases plan to reduce methane’, China Daily. Available at: https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202311/10/content_WS654d9aa7c6d0868f4e8e11f1.html (Accessed: 19 April 2023)

State Council of China (2023b) State Council Gazette Issue No.33 Serial No.1824 (Nov 30, 2023). Available at: https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/statecouncilgazette/202311/30/content_WS65682ed0c6d0868f4e8e1c37.html (Accessed: 19 April 2023)

State Council of China (2024) ‘China to advance energy conservation, carbon reduction in construction sector’. Available at: https://english.www.gov.cn/policies/latestreleases/202403/15/content_WS65f44735c6d0868f4e8e520f.html (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

Tachev, V. (2025) ‘China’s Oil Demand Dropped: Experts See Start of a Trend’, Energy Tracker Asia, 1 May. Available at: https://energytracker.asia/china-oil-demand-dropped

Tenova (2020) ‘First Hydrogen-based DRI Plant in China’, 23 November. Available at: https://tenova.com/newsroom/latest-tenova/first-hydrogen-based-dri-plant-china

Tenova (2022) ‘Largest Hydrogen-Based DRI Facility in China’, 3 March. Available at: https://tenova.com/newsroom/latest-tenova/largest-hydrogen-based-dri-facility-china

Tenova (2024) ‘Baowu achieves a historical milestone with ENERGIRON in China’s largest hydrogen-ready DRI facility’, tenova. Available at: https://tenova.com/newsroom/latest-tenova/first-ever-dri-production-baowu-china

The National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China (2024) ‘Energy Law of the People’s Republic of China’. The National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China. Available at: http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/c2/c30834/202411/t20241108_440884.html (Accessed: 28 May 2025)

The State Council of the People’s Republic of China (2024) ‘Action Plan for Energy Efficiency and Carbon Reduction for 2024-2025’, gov.cn, 29 May. Available at: https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/202405/content_6954322.htm

Transition Asia (2024) ‘Will China Win the Green Steel Race? H2-DRI-EAF Market and Policy Development to 2030’. Available at: https://transitionasia.org/will-china-win-the-green-steel-race/ (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

Trasi, C. (2025) ‘Convergence, not alignment: EU-China climate relations ahead of COP30’, Bruegel [Preprint]. Breugel. Available at: https://www.bruegel.org/analysis/convergence-not-alignment-eu-china-climate-relations-ahead-cop30 (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

UNEP (2022) COP15 ends with landmark biodiversity agreement, United Nations Environment Programme. Available at: https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/cop15-ends-landmark-biodiversity-agreement (Accessed: 14 April 2023)

UNFCCC (2025) ‘China Biennial Transparency Report. BTR1’. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Available at: https://unfccc.int/documents/645296 (Accessed: 12 May 2024)

U.S. Department of State (2021) U.S.-China Joint Glasgow Declaration on Enhancing Climate Action in the 2020s. Available at: https://www.state.gov/u-s-china-joint-glasgow-declaration-on-enhancing-climate-action-in-the-2020s/ (Accessed: 30 May 2022)

U.S. Department of State (2023) ‘Sunnylands Statement on Enhancing Cooperation to Address the Climate Crisis’, U.S. Department of State, 14 November. Available at: https://www.state.gov/sunnylands-statement-on-enhancing-cooperation-to-address-the-climate-crisis/ (Accessed: 29 May 2025)

Wang, L. (2022) ‘Wind and solar generation to double during the 14th Five-Year Plan (Chinese)’, Economic Information Daily, 24 June. Available at: http://www.jjckb.cn/2022-06/24/c_1310632092.htm

Wang, O. (2022) China plans expansion of high-speed railway equal to combined length of next 5 largest countries by network size by 2025, South China Morning Post. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3163957/china-plans-expansion-high-speed-rail-network-equal-combined (Accessed: 30 March 2022)

Wang, Q. (2022) ‘Introduction to Green Building Standards of China’. China Academy of Building Research. Available at: https://worldgbc.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Introduction-to-China-Green-Building-Assessment-Standard-3rd-Edition.pdf (Accessed: 30 May 2025)

Xinhua (2022) Report on the Work of the Government. Beijing: State Council of the People’s Republic of China. Available at: http://english.www.gov.cn/premier/news/202203/12/content_WS622c96d7c6d09c94e48a68ff.html

Xinhua (2024) ‘China leads world in carbon-sink capacity of forests, grassland’. The State Council of the People’s Republic of China. Available at: https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202408/14/content_WS66bcb5c7c6d0868f4e8e9e9e.html (Accessed: 12 May 2025)

Xinhua (2025) ‘China releases full text of government work report’, The State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 12 March. Available at: https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202503/12/content_WS67d17f57c6d0868f4e8f0c0d.html

Xinhua News Agency (2021) Outline of the People’s Republic of China 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and Long-Range Objectives for 2035. Available at: https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/china-14th-five-year-plan/

Xinhua News Agency (2025a) ‘China’s new energy vehicle production and sales volume will exceed 12 million units in 2024’, The State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 13 January. Available at: https://www.gov.cn/yaowen/liebiao/202501/content_6998270.htm

Xinhua News Agency (2025b) Opinions on Promoting Green and Low-Carbon Transition and Strengthening the National Carbon Market, The State Council of People’s Republic of China. Available at: https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/202508/content_7037717.htm (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

Xinhua News Agency (2025c) The report shows that China has made remarkable progress in addressing climate change and advancing the “dual carbon” goals., The State Council of People’s Republic of China. Available at: https://www.gov.cn/yaowen/liebiao/202509/content_7040007.htm (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

Xinhua News Agency (2025d) Xi announces China’s 2035 Nationally Determined Contributions to beef up climate response, The Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference. Available at: http://en.cppcc.gov.cn/2025-09/25/c_1128276.htm (Accessed: 29 October 2025)

Xinhuanet (2023) ‘Vehicle Purchase Tax Exemption Policy for NEVs Extended to the End of 2027’, Xinhuanet, 21 June. Available at: http://www.news.cn/politics/2023-06/21/c_1129710813.htm

Xue, Y. (2023) China’s plan to fully electrify public vehicles to give NEV sector US$118 billion boost, analyst says, South China Morning Post. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/business/china-business/article/3209534/chinas-plan-fully-electrify-public-vehicles-give-nev-sector-us118-billion-boost-analyst-says (Accessed: 19 April 2023)

Yao, J. (2022) The spring of hydrogen energy is here (Chinese), China Energy News. Available at: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/DI_BsocoX-srebjjToPDCg?utm_campaign=China Briefing&utm_content=20220324&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Revue newsletter (Accessed: 30 March 2022)

Yu, Z., Ciais, P., Piao, S., et al. (2022) ‘Forest expansion dominates China’s land carbon sink since 1980’, Nature Communications, 13(5374). doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-32961-2

Yu, Z., Gao, C., Yang, J., et al. (2024) ‘Overview of research and development of nearly zero energy buildings in China’, National Science Open, 3(3), p. 18. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1360/nso/20230083

Yvonne, D., Fuentes, U., Hare, B., et al. (2020) U.S. and China Climate Goals : Scenarios for 2030 and Mid-Century. Available at: https://climateanalytics.org/media/aspi-ca-us_chinaclimategoals-2020.pdf

Zhang, P. (2024) ‘Shanghai to continue offering free license plates for BEVs in 2025’, CnEV Post, 31 December. Available at: https://cnevpost.com/2024/12/31/shanghai-continues-free-license-plates-bevs-2025

Zhang, P. (2025) ‘China renews car trade-in subsidies, analysts see more benefit for lower-priced NEV makers’, CnEV Post, 8 January. Available at: https://cnevpost.com/2025/01/08/china-renews-car-trade-in-subsidies

Zhang, S.C., Yang, X.Y., Xu, W. and Fu, Y.J. (2021) ‘Contribution of nearly-zero energy buildings standards enforcement to achieve carbon neutral in urban area by 2060’, Advances in Climate Change Research, 12(5), pp. 734–743. doi:10.1016/j.accre.2021.07.004

Zhang, S.C. and Fu, Y.-J. (2021) ‘Assessment of mid-to-long term energy saving impacts of nearly zero energy building incentive policies in cold region of China’, Energy and Buildings, 241(2). doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.110938

Zheng, X. (2025) ‘Nuclear power key to sustainable, greener energy’, China Daily, 13 January. Available at: https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202501/23/WS6791a1f5a310a2ab06ea8c6c.html

Zhu, J. (2024) ‘Cement industry enters an important adjustment period (Chinese)’, China Economic Net, 28 August. Available at: http://paper.ce.cn/pad/content/202402/28/content_290215.html

Zhu, Y., Xia, X., Canadell, J.G., et al. (2025) ‘China’s carbon sinks from land-use change underestimated’, Nature Climate Change 2025 15:4, 15(4), pp. 428–435. doi:10.1038/s41558-025-02296-z

Latest publications

Stay informed

Subscribe to our newsletter